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10 Job Analysis Methods

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Job analysis is a process for collecting information that describes in detail the criteria for successful job performance.

Typically, it focuses on tasks, responsibilities, knowledge and skill requirements, and any other abilities for successful job performance.

These are top 10 methods of job analysis as follows:

1. Job element method

This method is same the critical incident technique. It focuses on work behaviors and the results of this behavior rather than more abstract characteristics. Job element method developed by Ernest Primoff.

2. Checklists and rating scales

Checklist is job analysis method base on an inventory of job elements. You can ask question about purose of position; key responsibility areas; organization; relationships; decision making; authority; Skills, knowledge, experience; working conditions.

3. Competency profiling

Competency modeling is the activity of determining the specific competencies that are characteristic of high performance and success in a given job. Contents of competency modeling include skills, knowledge, abilities, values, interests, personalities.

4. Direct observation

Direct Observation is a method to observe and record behavior / events / activities / tasks / duties while something is happening.

5. Work methods analysis

Work methods analysis is used to describe manual and repetitive production jobs, such as factory or assembly-line jobs. Work methods analysis includes time and motion study and micro-motion analysis.

6. Critical incident technique

Critical incident technique is a method used to identify work behaviors that classify in good and poor performance.

7. Position Analysis Questionnaire

PAQ model is a questionnaire technique. It developed by McCormick, Jeanneret, and Mecham (1972), is a structured instrument of job analysis to measure job characteristics and relate them to human characteristics. It consists of 195 job elements that describe generic human work behaviors.

8. Functional job analysis

FJA model is a technique that was developed by the Employment and Training Administration of the United States Department of Labor. It includes 7 scales (numbers) that measure: 3 worker-function scales: measure % of time spent with: data, people, things; 1 worker-instruction scale; 3 scales that measure reasoning, mathematics, language.

9. Work Profiling System

WPS model is a questionnaire technique of job analysis, is a computer-administered system for job analysis, developed by Saville & Holdsworth, Ltd.

10. Task Inventory

A task inventory is a list of the discrete activities that make up a specific job in a specific organization

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Source by Anna Tran

How the 21st Century office was born in post war Europe

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Central Beheer Building There was a curious addition to a 2016 report on the Top 10 Technologies Driving the Digital Workplace from tech researchers Gartner. It wasn’t a technology at all but rather a slightly obscure office design concept that originated in Hamburg in the late 1950s, but which tells us a lot about how we work in the 21st Century office, according to Gartner. Its history lies with the German consulting firm Quickborner. Led by the brothers Eberhard and Wolfgang Schnelle, the firm applied the egalitarian principles of the post war world and rejection of the scientific management theories that had created the familiar factory-like rows of desks that had come to dominate open plan offices to create something more in tune with the new age.

The resultant idea of Bürolandschaft (German for office landscape) applied organic forms to create something they considered more humane and natural. Although the model used conventional office furniture, it was laid out organically and divided up by plants and screens to reflect the needs of individuals and teams and to reflect flows of communication. Management was no longer isolated to private offices. Spaces were defined by the functions of the people who worked in them and their relations to colleagues.

 

Some familiar themes

Buerolandschaft schematic

Quickborner’s scheme for the offices of Osram in Munich

These are very familiar themes in what we often call the new world of work, especially with its focus on agile and activity based working. But in the post war world the focus was on overcoming the rigid hierarchies that had dominated the workplace since the turn of the 20th century.

In 1958, the same year that Quickborner popularised Bürolandschaft, the giant US office furniture manufacturer Herman Miller recruited a designer called Robert Propst to design a new range of products specifically for open plan offices.

Although he came to be known as the father of all those cubicle farms that dominated US office life in the late 20th Century, and still do to a lesser extent, he was driven by some of the same principles as the Schelle brothers. He shared the Schelle’s yearning for egalitarianism and human focussed design and once bemoaned that ‘the cubiclizing of people in modern corporations is monolithic insanity’.

His 1968 treatise called A Facility Based on Change set out the core principles of Action Office and his focus on people and their interactions is clear. Even so, the allure of command and control management structures and their desire for linearity meant his vision and that of the developers of Bürolandschaft was overwhelmed by the mainstream.

The result was the now familiar well-ordered open plan that may have manifested itself in its own way in different part of the world, but was evidently linked to management hierarchies.

 

A new world order

Until recently that is. The fact that the world’s leading tech analyst has rehabilitated the idea to define the new relationship between the physical and digital workspace tells us that this is an idea so closely aligned to the needs of people – the workplace’s only almost-consistent element – that its core principles of people-centricity and organic design may be eternal.

Of course, the context in which it matters have changed. We live in an era of technology that the Quickborner team could never have imagined. Yet the things that drive people and the way they think, behave and interact with each other are more or less constant.

As the office starts to function more like an app with a menu of options for its user, so too does the technology absorb some of the characteristics of the physical environment

At its inception, the idea of Bürolandschaft was defined by pioneers in a world reshaped by new ideas in the wake of a global cataclysm, and in a nation that was at its epicentre. It was the age of the German Wirtschaftswunder and the founding of the then European Common Market. Its history is bound up with the movement towards a more inclusive, egalitarian and collaborative world.

Its enduring resonance also now lies with its applicability to new ways of working. Not only do its principles make it an ideal touchpoint for the era of activity based working, in which people are encouraged to move through the carefully designed organic forms of an office, it also bridges the former gaps between digital and physical space.

As is so often the case with these things, as the office starts to function more like an app with a menu of options for its user, so too does the technology absorb some of the characteristics of the physical environment.

In that regard, it’s perhaps unsurprising that Gartner have chosen to align a 60 year old model of office design alongside unmistakeably 21st Century workplace trends such as algorithms, immersive technology and AI.

 

The first open plan backlash

Whatever you make of the current and frankly un-nuanced debate about open plan offices (one of the latest pieces of research suggests they may be better for us than private offices) we have all been here before. The organic and people centric principles of Bürolandschaft originally developed in the 1950s as a way of creating a more democratised and collaborative open workplace, quickly mutated when spliced with corporate DNA into the North American bullpens and European clusters of workstations we now see as stereotypically open plan. When people complain about the problems of open plan, it is these models of design to which they are referring.

Fifty years ago, there was widespread interest in finding ways to address the most common issues created by the new generation of open plan offices

This is nothing new. By the 1960s questions were already being raised about the wisdom of these sorts of layouts, especially in Europe. Partly this was cultural, but new co-determination laws in Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden also meant that workers’ voices were widely represented at board level for the first time, leading to a greater focus on their needs and preferences. Technological developments also meant that offices were becoming generally noisier places to work.

These forces coalesced to forge the nascent principles of workplace wellbeing we know today. Fifty years ago, there was widespread interest in finding ways to address the most common issues created by the new generation of open plan offices, especially with regards to noise, personal space, meetings, natural light and ergonomics.

 

Dutch courage

One of the first and most striking manifestations of this new approach came about in the Netherlands city of Apeldoorn during 1968. This was the year that financial services firm Centraal Beheer commissioned Dutch architect Herman Hertzberger to create a new headquarters for its staff but with the sort of brief that will sound very familiar to modern ears.

‘It should be a place where 1,000 people can feel at home. The employees must have the feeling of being part of a community without being lost in the crowd.’

[Quoted in https://www.abebooks.com/book-search/title/architectural-history-social-science-papers/author/dettingmeijer-rob-reinink-wessel-roding/]

Overhead view of Centraal Beheer buildingThe solution developed by Hertzberger and his colleagues was unique. They fragmented the building into modular blocks consisting of 9 metre cubes. The 56 cubes of the building were linked by public atria, communal space and walkways and perhaps the first iteration of an office ‘street’ to create a whole. Illumination came in the form of natural light and lampposts, emphasising the feeling of a tight-knit medieval town.

Each cube was designed to accommodate up to ten people who were invited to customise their surroundings with personal accessories, plants and elements from their homes. The fractal spaces created by this configuration became more intimate for teams of people – most research suggests that teams should be under ten people to optimise decision making. The spaces also addressed the acoustic problems commonly associated with traditional open plan space.

The result is something conceptually similar to what we now refer to as activity based working, in that people are free to move around the building, albeit that the nature of 1970s work and technology meant they spent more time at a dedicated workstation than would now be the case. The most important outcomes were the same though; a greater emphasis on individual wellbeing and empowerment along with the sense that people were part of both a small group and a larger community.

 

Forward to the combi office

The major drawback with the Centraal Beheer building was that it was very space hungry. Its principles were ahead of their time, but it wasn’t a practical solution for everybody.

Another solution and ultimately more popular to the challenges posed by open plan offices appeared for the first time at the offices of Canon in the Stockholm suburb of Sätra in 1978. Faced with a similar brief to that of Centraal Beheer, the Swedish architectural practice Tengbom Architects developed the idea of the combi-office.

combi officeThis was a much more straightforward solution than Hertzberger’s cubes. It consisted of a floor layout in which people were returned to their private cellular offices around the periphery of a floor and the central space was given over to communal and meeting spaces. This not only gave people the opportunity to work in private but also enjoy more natural light from the windows in their dedicated rooms.

In the US, the idea was picked up and popularised as caves-and-commons. It is described in Stewart Brand’s book How Buildings Learn in the following way:

‘Each office worker has a private office, often small, which opens into a generous open area surrounded by many other private offices. The open area has a kitchen, some couches, sometimes tables for sitting around informally, and sometimes a working library, or at least a rack of current periodicals. You can shut the door of your cave and concentrate, or you can leave your door open and keep an eye and ear on who’s coming and going in the commons, and whether the meeting or presentation going on there might be worth leaning in on.’

The parallels with activity based and agile working are again clear, although in a modern context it would be far more usual to see people working in communal space and retiring to private rooms only when necessary rather than the other way around. It’s an enduring model of office design that exists in updated variants to this day.

What such examples show is that our core workplace challenges are very similar to those faced by previous generations of occupiers and designers. And while the solutions are not precisely the same, their key principles can be very familiar indeed.

This feature was first published in two parts on the website of Area

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The Rise of Temp Work and Flexible Jobs: The Opportunity It Brings for Staffing

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It’s hard to believe we’ve now lived almost a full year in the pandemic. Since March I’ve written articles about ways to adjust business strategy, how to adapt to the changing times, utilizing technology to stay successful, and more. When I wrote my first article related to the pandemic back in March, I never thought almost a year later the pandemic would still be as present as it is in our lives today.

What’s changed though in the past 10 months, are the opportunities the pandemic brought to the staffing industry. A lot has changed since March and companies adapted to this change. We’ve seen major increases and decreases in industry demand. We’ve also seen a significant increase in working at home, among many other changes. Now, we are beginning to see some of the long-term effects these industry changes have brought to the workforce. The rise of temporary help and flexible jobs for the foreseeable future is among these changes.

Cause of Increase in Temporary Jobs

There are several reasons experts predict there will be a rise in contract jobs going forward. In general, the staffing industry has seen that temporary jobs have recovered faster than direct hire jobs.

COVID-19 has actually added a lot of the jobs to the temporary workforce, such as temperature checkers and contact tracers. Currently there is a major demand for jobs assisting with the vaccine rollout, which could be a great opportunity for staffing companies if you’re able to get the trained staff that is needed.

Besides the addition of COVID-19 jobs, the pandemic has caused an increase in demand for contract work in other areas. Some companies are still treading water and are cautious about bringing employees back on full-time. Contract workers are less of an investment, which is better in times of uncertainty and as companies are getting back on their feet. The job is still able to get done without the added expense of benefit packages and other costs associated with a new full-time hire.

More workers have also turned to do freelance work as it helped bring in income for jobs that were lost during the pandemic. According to a survey conducted by Upwork between June and July of 2020, 36% of the American workforce had freelanced in the previous 12 months. 12% started freelancing during the pandemic (54% out of necessity) and 75% in search of financial stability. Of those that were surveyed, 88% said they are likely to freelance in the future.

In general, workers are also looking for a flexible work environment. More people have an interest in doing a variety of work and are looking to be able to control their schedule. According to a recent Monster survey, 92% of respondents said they think now is a good time to look into a gig economy. 57% of respondents also said they would take a gig job in-between jobs and 52% said they would like a long-term contract with flexible hours.

All of these reasons are the cause for the increase in demand for temp help. Whether it is the demand for COVID-19 jobs or the way the pandemic has caused the workforce and employers to shift the way they are used to doing things. In the process, we’ve adapted to these changes and it has brought on new opportunities for both workers and employers.

Cause of Increase in Remote Work

As we all know and have probably experienced it at one point or another, there has been an increase in remote work. I personally never worked remotely fulltime, until March hit. Now I’ve been working remotely for the past 10 months and it has truly become the new normal. When I think back to the days, we all went into the office, it seems like so long ago now. Workers and employers are beginning to feel this same way, if they aren’t already feeling it. Remote work has become a new normal and it is here to stay in some capacity.

From an employer stand-point, companies have seen that working from home can work. They’ve seen employees still able to complete their tasks and, in some cases, have seen an increase in productivity. Operating costs have also probably gone down as they are spending less money with employees working remotely (no more café snacks, employee lunches, etc.) With this, employers will be thinking about incorporating more work at home opportunities in the future and/or eliminating an office all together. According to a survey performed by Verizon, 86% of global companies believe the digital workplace will coexist with the physical workspace post COVID-19 and 78% expect to increase remote working.

Employees have also gotten used to the work from home environment and prefer keeping it in some shape or form. This may include going into the office a few days a week or working remotely full-time. In a survey conducted by PWC, over half of employees (55%), want to work remotely three days a week or more.

Remote work though is not just for permanent employees. The staffing industry has seen a rise in remote work from temps, since the pandemic started and it’s predicted that more temps will continue to work remotely post-pandemic. Employers who are used to temporary workers being on location, have learned that this doesn’t necessarily have to be the case. Not all temp jobs require the employee to work on location and the pandemic has proven that. This opens up significant opportunities for employers hiring temporary help.

Opportunities it Brings for Staffing

So, what does the rise of temporary help and flexible jobs actually mean for the staffing industry? It opens up the door to new horizons. Now is the time to begin planning both your short and long-term strategy. Statistics show the workforce will be making this shift for the foreseeable future. By adapting to the change now, staffing companies can stay ahead of the curve. So where can you begin?

Discuss Temporary Opportunities with Employers that Typically Hire Full-Time

The rise of temporary help is not just for companies that employ contract workers. It can be a new opportunity for companies that typically look to hire full-time. If a client would be open to the idea of contract work, it could be a good opportunity to discuss the rise and benefits of it versus hiring a full-time employee. It’s not only less costly, as discussed early, but it opens the door to explore more qualified candidates that are looking for contract work. Not all positions may be suited for contract work, but it is certainly an avenue that can be explored if the client is open to it. To test the waters, you could even propose a temp-to-hire plan. If the contract worker ends up working out and they want to stay at the company, they can be brought on full-time.

Flexible Jobs Add Another Layer of Opportunity

As temporary jobs are no longer just for companies that look to contract, flexible jobs are no longer just for permanent placements. As statistics have shown, more workers are looking to have the opportunity to work remotely. This brings new opportunity for both contract and permanent placements. It allows staffing companies to expand your search for qualified candidates outside of the state. It also offers the opportunity to find more qualified candidates based on their preference to work at home. There may be highly skilled individuals that you could be missing out on if they prefer not to work at a physical location.

The opportunity to offer more flexible jobs will ultimately help increase the candidate pool. If a client would be open to remote work, now is a good time to discuss the increased interest in it and also the benefits. Not all jobs can be performed from home, but think about the jobs that could be and the opportunity it brings for the client.

Take Advantage of the Industries in Demand

There are several industries in demand now that will continue to be in demand and offer opportunity to employ contract and/or remote workers. Below are just a few of theses industries that could bring new opportunities for staffing companies.

As mentioned earlier, there has been an increase in COVID-19 related jobs. The pharmaceutical and healthcare industries are both booming and are in desperate need of assistance to meet the vaccine rollout demand. This is a great opportunity to partner with these industries and help them employ contract workers.

The information technology industry also boomed in 2020 and will continue to spiral upward. These jobs have been more stable during the pandemic because they haven’t relied on having a physical location. Most IT jobs can be performed online and offer an agile work at home environment. There has also been an increase in helpdesk/PC support jobs as more organizations are working at home. With the rise of IT jobs and the flexible work environment they bring, it’s another great industry for staffing companies to explore.

Customer Service representatives and call center agents have also seen an increase in demand in healthcare, IT, and online retail. As more businesses move virtual, there is a greater need for customer service help related to software and applications to help run teams remotely. More people are also shopping online, so there is a greater demand for online retail Customer Service Representatives. Customer Service Representatives can also offer the opportunity to work remotely.

Industrial and Manufacturing have also seen increases in demand. Manufacturers that produce essential goods have needed to increase staff significantly since the start of the pandemic. If staffing companies haven’t already looked into manufacturing companies of essential goods, this could be an opportunity to employ contract workers. Manufacturers of non-essential goods are also beginning to increase production. Business orders for durable goods such as tools, appliances and new cars rose for eight months in a row. This shows manufacturers are increasing their goods production in anticipation of strong sales in 2021 and may need to hire more staff now or in the near future.

These are just a few of the industries in demand now and for the foreseeable future. By doing research into industries that are booming and are expected to grow, staffing companies will set themselves up for future success. If they can incorporate contract and/or remote work into these industries, it will be a win, win.

Running with Opportunity

The pandemic has certainly brought on it’s challenges this past year, but the silver lining is it’s brought some new opportunities for the staffing industry to take advantage of. Change can be scary, but now is the time to run with the opportunities that present themselves and prepare for the changing future!

References:

UpWork Survey

Monster Survey

Verizon Survey

PWC Survey

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Source by Terri Roeslmeier

Will Robots Take Over Jobs?

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This is the third and final article of a three part series on Autism and Technology. Our focus here is to spotlight a very controversial area which has the potential to impact the lives of millions around the globe. That is, job creation and ultimately will robots replace human workers in the job market of the future. What role will robots play within the future employment arena, and more importantly, how secure is your job status? These are the questions we will address within the context of this emotionally charged topic.

Part III

The intent of this series has been to raise awareness about robotic technology and the speed of development within the field. Our tendency is to view new technology as parallax, but actually we are closer to living in a high-tech reality than we realize. What does all this mean and how will the new world of work look like with robots as an integral part of the landscape? For some, the issue hits closer to home as they contemplate if their job will be eliminated because of technology. The short, and most accurate, response to that question is simply – maybe.

First, it is important to emphasize the fact that there will not be a mass insurrection by robots – as seen in the movies. That is not based in reality primarily because technology really is in its nascent stage. Upon closer examination, we will more likely see a blend of humans working alongside robots. Obviously, we are experiencing this trend at the present time in the automotive, manufacturing, and in some cases the hospitality industries. It is probable the use of robots will expand to health care and segments of the food service fields. In most cases, robots are often the solution involving job openings which are difficult to fill. This seems to occur in industries requiring specialized digital skills or areas that call for rapid paced repetitive tasks. Another key factor influencing the use of robots in industry is simply a matter of economics. Some departments or areas of production are more efficient to operate having robots perform duties once assigned to humans.

The 21ST century worker must be prepared to constantly upgrade skills in order to remain attractive for employers. Companies are seeking individuals who possess digital skills and have the capacity to see the big picture. Some analysts predict developing new skills will be essential to continued career growth in order to keep pace with advancements in technology. This does not mean returning to college for another degree, but adapting a new skill or participating in a one day seminar related to a specific topic in a chosen field. For autistic employees, robots may serve in a complementary role offering assistance in communication and social awareness. The emphasis, however, is on collaboration between humans and machines as a means of maximizing productivity. Sadly, there is a human element contributing to the increased reliance on robotic production that can’t be ignored. That is drug use, particularly opioid addiction, and the devastation it creates on the corporate bottom line. Due to the negative impact of drugs in the workplace, some employers have chosen to automate.

The best strategy for both present and future employment is to sharpen skills and diversify talents to avoid being the proverbial “one trick pony.” One area in need of outstanding talent involves jobs requiring diminishing soft skills that companies love. The ideal employee has the rare combination of excellent technical skills and impeccable people or social skills. Global corporations are craving social skills and are bringing in consultants to teach employees the nuances of communications, professionalism, and the finer points of human interactions. Importantly, these are examples of perfecting the human touch, as opposed to solely focusing on robots. In conclusion, robots will have a designated place in offices and homes in the future, but only we have the innate capacity to be uniquely human.

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Source by George David Williams

Burnout and Its Organizational Effects: A Study on Literature Review

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1. Introduction

Burnout is a prolonged response to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors on the job, and is defined by the three dimensions of exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy. The past 25 years of research has established the complexity of the construct, and places the individual stress experience within a larger organizational context of people’s relation to their work. Recently, the work on burnout has expanded internationally and has led to new conceptual models. The focus on engagement, the positive antithesis of burnout, promises to yield new perspectives on the interventions to alleviate burnout. The social focus of burnout, the solid research basis concerning the syndrome, and its specific ties to the work domain make a distinct and valuable contribution to people’s health and well-being (Maslach, Schaufeli & Leiter, 2001).

Statement of the Problem and Rationale of the Study

Occupational stress and Job Burnout is an emerging concept. Many researches so far conducted to reveal the actual effects of job burnout on organizational performance. This study strived to fill the gap by presenting a substantial number of research studies conducted so far in different aspects of burnout. This study would benefit the researchers, practitioners, policy makers, students, and various stakeholders. This study would definitely augment the current research on job burnout.

2. Objective of the Study

The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between job burnout (emotional exhaustion and depersonalization) and its organizational effect. The study should enhance further research and this study will be conducted based on several studies conducted on research topic.

3. Research Methodology

The methodology used for this study was literature survey. The study was completely based on compiling the studies conducted so far on burnout. The researchers collected different studies on Burnout from different libraries, universities, and book stores. In reviewing the literature, both theoretical and empirical studies were taken into consideration. In total, 10 studies were collected for the review.

4. Burnout

The term “burnout” was coined to describe a psychological syndrome that is characterised by a negative emotional reaction to one’s job as a consequence of extended exposure to a stressful work environment (Maslach and Jackson, 1984; Maslach et al., 2001). The initial research on burnout, which was conducted in the 1970s using interviews, surveys and field observations, focused primarily on individuals working in the human services professions, such as health care, social services, education and legal services (Cherniss, 1980; Maslach, 1976, 1979, 1982; Maslach and Jackson, 1982, 1984; Pines and Maslach, 1978; Schwab and Iwanicki, 1982). However, over the years, burnout has become a phenomenon of notable global significance and it is recognised that it affects individuals in a wide range of occupations (Kalliath et al., 2000; Schaufeli et al., 2009). Maslach and Jackson (1986) conceptualise burnout as comprising of three dimensions, namely, emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and reduced personal accomplishment that can occur among individuals that work with people in some capacity.

5. Types of Burnout

Maslach describes three dimensions of burnout:

Exhaustion: Feeling overextended, both emotionally and physically

Cynicism: Taking a cold, cynical attitude toward responsibilities.

Ineffectiveness: When people feel ineffective, they feel a growing sense of inadequacy

Exhaustion: Exhaustion is the central quality of burnout and the most obvious manifestation of this complex syndrome. When people describe themselves or others as expe- riencing burnout, they are most often referring to the experience of exhaustion.

Of the three aspects of burnout, exhaustion is the most widely reported and the most thoroughly analyzed. The strong identiï¬ cation of exhaustion with burnout has led some to argue that the other two aspects of the syndrome are incidental or unnecessary (Shirom 1989). However, the fact that exhaustion is a necessary criterion for burnout does not mean it is sufï¬ cient. If one were to look at burnout out of context, and simply focus on the individual exhaustion component, one would lose sight of the phenomenon entirely.

Although exhaustion reflects the stress dimension of burnout, it fails to capture the critical aspects of the relationship people have with their work. Exhaustion is not something that is simply experienced-rather, it prompts actions to distance oneself emotionally and cognitively from one’s work, presumably as a way to cope with the work overload. Within the human services, the emotional demands of the work can exhaust a service provider’s capacity to be involved with, and responsive to, the needs of service recipients.

Depersonalization/Cynicism: depersonalization is an attempt to put distance between oneself and service recipients by actively ignoring the qualities that make them unique and engaging people. Their demands are more manageable when they are considered impersonal objects of one’s work. Outside of the human services, people use cognitive distancing by developing an indifference or cynical attitude when they are exhausted and discouraged. Distancing is such an immediate reaction to exhaustion that a strong relationship from exhaustion to cynicism (depersonalization) is found consistently in burnout research, across a wide range of organizational and occupational settings.

Ineffectiveness / inefficacy: The relationship of inefficacy (reduced personal accomplishment) to the other two aspects of burnout is somewhat more complex. In some instances it appears to be a function, to some degree, of either exhaustion, cynicism, or a combination of the two (Byrne 1994, Lee & Ashforth 1996). A work situation with chronic, overwhelming demands that contribute to exhaustion or cynicism is likely to erode one’s sense of effectiveness. Further, exhaustion or depersonalization interfere with effectiveness: It is difficult to gain a sense of accomplishment when feeling exhausted or when helping people toward whom one is indifferent. However, in other job contexts, inefficacy appears to develop in parallel with the other two burnout aspects, rather than sequentially (Leiter 1993). The lack of efficacy seems to arise more clearly from a lack of relevant resources, whereas exhaustion and cynicism emerge from the presence of work overload and social conflict.

6. Effect of Burnout

The consequences of burnout can be of two types: individual related and the effect on organization’s overall productivity. Tennant (Tennant, C. (2001). Work-related stress and depressive disorders. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 51, 697-704.) has explained the personal consequences such as depressive disorder arising from stress. The effect on organizational of employee burnout includes decrease in employee’s job performance and job satisfaction, diminished organizational commitment and increase in employee’s absenteeism and turnover (Cordes C. L., & Dougherty T. W. (1993). A review and an integration of research on job burnout. Acad. Manage. Rev. 18, 621-656.).

Burnout and Job Satisfaction

Malik et al. (2011), Maslach et al. (2001), Kumar et al. (2007) have studied the relationship of job satisfaction with burnout; and have found burnout to be a strongly related to job dissatisfaction. With-in three phases of burnout, emotional exhaustion is found to be more significant cause of job dissatisfaction than cynicism (Kumar, S., Fisher, J., Robinson E., Hatcher, S., & Bhagat R. N. (2007). Burnout and job satisfaction in New Zealand psychiatrists: a national study. Int J Soc Psychiatry, 53, 306-16.).

Burnout and Organizational Commitment

Meyer and Allen (1991) have defined three types of organizational commitment: affective, continuance and normative. Affective commitment is the emotional attachment and identification of employees with their organization. Continuance commitment involves the cost of leaving the organization; while normative commitment is the sense of obligation of the employees to stay in the organization. Several research studies have reported that burnout reduced employee’s organizational commitment (Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W.B., & Leiter, M.P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 397-422.; Cordes C. L., & Dougherty T. W. (1993). A review and an integration of research on job burnout. Acad. Manage. Rev. 18, 621-656.). Within the three dimensions of burnout, emotional exhaustion and cynicism were found strongly associated with diminished organizational commitment (Halbesleben, J. R. B., & Buckley, M. R. (2004). Burnout in Organizational Life. Journal of Management, 30, 859-879.; Haque, A., & Aslam, M. S. (2011). The Influence of Demographics on Job Burnout. Far East Journal of Psychology and Business, 4(2), 57-72.).

Burnout and Turnover Intention

Leiter and Maslach (Leiter, M. P., & Maslach, C. (2009). Nurse turnover: the mediating role of burnout. Journal of Nursing Management, 17, 331-339.2009) have reported positive relationship of burnout and turnover intention. Several authors have tested the positive relationship of burnout and intention to turnover (Masalch & Jackson, 1985; Jackson et al, 1986; Lieter & Maslach, 2009; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Du Plooy and Roodt, 2010; Leiter et al., 2008). Schaufeli and Bakker (Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job resources and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25, 293-315.2004) have investigated employee’s turnover intention and burnout in multiple settings; insurance companies, pension funds, an occupational health and home care institution. They have confirmed the positive relationship between burnout and turnover intention. Goodman and Boss (Goodman, E., & Boss, R. W. (2002). The phase model of burnout and employee turnover. Journal of Health and Human Services Administration, 25(1/2), 33-47.) reported that employees who left the organization scored higher on burnout than those who chose to stay.

7. Organizational Outcomes of Burnout

One of the major problem of burnout is that it creates conflict within the organization often it is termed as work family conflict Work family conflict occurs when the demands of work interfere with the ability to perform family duties (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985). Work family conflict is linked to adverse outcomes, including lower job productivity and satisfaction, poorer mental and physical health, and higher burnout (Allen et al., 2000; Magee et al., 2012). The conservation of resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 2001) has been applied in numerous studies to understand the causes and consequences of Work family conflict (Grandey and Cropanzano, 1999). According to conservation of resources theory, individuals seek to retain, gain, or avoid losing, valued resources such as personal health, stable employment, and support from co-workers (Hobfoll, 2001). Competing demands from work and family role promote resources loss, which is a major source of stress. Prolonged Work family conflict can lead to poor health outcomes such as burnout and depression (Hobfoll and Shirom, 2001). Work can also benefit individuals and their families (Greenhaus and Powell, 2006). Work family efficiency is a process that occurs when work-related experiences generate or promote the development of resources (e.g. mood, psychosocial benefits) that benefit the family domain (Carlson et al., 2006). Research shows that higher Work family efficiency is associated with positive outcomes, including higher job satisfaction, and improved physical health and mental health (McNall et al., 2010). The resource gain-development (RGD) model provides a framework for understanding Work family efficiency (Wayne et al., 2007). The resource gain-development model assumes that individuals have a natural predisposition to developing, achieving, and growing to the greatest degree possible for themselves and groups or systems they belong to, including family and organizations (Wayne et al., 2007). According to the resource gain-development model, Work family efficiency occurs when resources gained in the work domain are applied, sustained, and reinforced in the family domain. The extent of enrichment experienced is dependent on the level of resources an individual already possesses (Wayne et al., 2007). For example, compared to mothers with few resources, mothers with high resource levels (e.g. high income or a supportive partner) can more readily acquire additional resources, and consequently experience greater Work family efficiency. Building on past studies showing that work-family profiles have differing implications for indicators of health and well-being (Demerouti and Geurts, 2004; Rantanen et al., 2013), the final aim of this paper was to examine the relationships between work-tofamily profiles and burnout. Previous research shows that compared to the active and contradictory profiles, the beneficial profile had the highest life satisfaction and the lowest psychological strains (Rantanen et al., 2013). Job and life satisfaction, core-selfevaluation, and job exhaustion have also differed across work-family profiles (Demerouti and Geurts, 2004; Rantanen et al., 2011). Distinct profiles of Work family conflict and Work family efficiency may have implications for burnout, which represents a “combination of physical fatigue, emotional exhaustion, and cognitive weariness” (Shirom, 1989, p. 33). Existing studies have demonstrated that Work family conflict is associated with burnout (e.g. Innstrand et al., 2008), which affects work performance and parenting, and is a growing problem, particularly for women employees (Jarvisalo et al., 2005). The associations between Work family conflict and burnout can be understood within the context of conservation of resources theory.Work family conflict reflects a process whereby work-related demands lead to a threatened, or actual loss, of personal resources, leading to stress (Grandey and Cropanzano,1999).Resource losses are then exacerbated as individuals in vest a vailable resources to prevent further losses, leading to a spiral of resource losses, and over time burnout (Hobfoll, 2001). It is then plausible that profiles characterized by higher levels of Work family conflict will experience higher burnout levels than profiles with lower Work family conflict levels. In contrast, Work family efficiency has been linked with lower levels of burnout (Innstrand et al., 2008). According to conservation of resources theory, in times of low-stress individuals seek to gain surplus resources in order to prevent or minimize future losses (Hobfoll, 2001). Moreover, any gains can at least partially offset stress and potentially minimize burnout; thus suggesting that Work family efficiency may serve as a buffer against the adverse effects of Work family conflict. It is then plausible that individuals with high Work family efficiency may not experience the effects of Work family conflict to the same extent as those with low Work family efficiency.

8. Findings & Recommendation

Findings

Job burnout is highly related with the factor emotional exhaustion. The relation between work family conflict, intention to leave organization and job burnout is also positive. If job burnout level is decreases then the work family conflict and intention to leave organization level will be increases.

Recommendation

The importance of identifying the most important factors in workers’ burnout, and of designing an effective questionnaire to ascertain the level and type of burnout in individual workers, is crucial if management is to be able to implement appropriate strategies of prevention and/or alleviation of stressful situations, or provide useful help to valuable workers, once burnout has occurred. Through correct application of such testing, managers can reduce job turnover and the disruption that it causes. Job burnout is highly related to factor emotional exhaustion, organization may take some policy to motivated employees for reduce job burnout. If employee able to reduce their job burnout then job satisfaction and job involvement may also increases.

9. Conclusion

Employees’ burnout has already been identified as influencing productivity, motivation, intention to leave a job, work family conflict etc. However, burnout is a complex phenomenon and difficult to measure. In this article, three burnout dimensions measures were suggested and utilized to assess their prediction power of a worker’s intention to leave a job. High work family conflict was associated with high personal and work burnout, and high work family efficiency was associated low-personal burnout and work burnout. Finally the inverse relationships between work family efficiency and personal burnout. The potential stressors identified by the study are workload, long working hours, technological problems at work, inadequate salary, and lack of ample time for family and job worries at home. The study also revealed that these stresses are leading to physical and psychological burnout of employees.

10. References

Ahola, K., Kivimaki, M., Honkonena, T., Virtanen, M., Koskinen, S., Vahtera, J. & Lonnqvist, J. (2005) “Occupational burnout and medically certified sickness absence: A population-based study of Finnish employee”, Journal of Psychosomatic Research, Vol.64, pp 185-193.

Ahola, K., Vaananen, A., Koskinen, A., Kouvonen, A. & Shirom, A. “Burnout as a predictor of all-cause mortality among industrial employees: a 10-year prospective register-linkage study”, Journal of Psychosomatic Research, pp 1-7.

Barkhuizen, E.N. (2005), “Work wellness of academic staff in South African higher education institutions”, PhD thesis, Potchefstroom Campus, North West Province, available at: dspace.nwu.ac.za/bitstream/10394/713/1/barkhuizen_emmerentian.pdf (accessed 12 January 2011).

Cordes, C., & Dougherty, T. (1993). A Review and an Integration of Research on Job Burnout, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 18(4), pp.621-656.

Demerouti, E., Bakker, A., Nachreiner, F. & Schaufeli, W. (2007). The Job Demands Resources Model of Burnout, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 86, pp.499-512.

Duane, B. (2002), Career choice and development, fourth edition, published by Jossey-Bass, a wiley company,989,market street, San Francisco, CA, pp39-61.

Edelwich, J. & Brodsky, A. (1980), Stages of disillusionment in the helping profession. New York: Human Sciences Press.

Freudenberger HJ. (1972) Staff burn-out, Journal of Soc Issues; Vol. 30, pp.159-207.

Friedman, I. (1993). Burnout in Teachers: the Concept and its Unique Core Meaning, Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53(4), 1035. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013164493053004016.

Friedman, I.A. (2000), “Student behaviour patterns contributing to teacher burnout”, The Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 88 No. 5, pp. 281-9.

Gibney, A., Moore, N., Murphy, F. & Sullivan, S. (2010), “The first semester of university life; ‘will I be able to manage it at all?'”, Higher Education, Vol. 63 No. 3, pp.351-66, available at: http://www.springerlink.com/content/7633p22705214148/ (accessed 3 February 2011).

Grandey, A. A.(1999) Emotion Regulation in the Workplace: A New Way to Conceptualize Emotional Labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, Vol.5, pp.95-110.

Green, D.E., Walkey, F.H., & Taylor, A.J.W. (1985). The three factor structure of the Maslach Burnout Inventory, Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, Vol. 6, pp. 453-472.

Haughey, S. (2010), “CAO applications and college places”, Statement in the Seanad, 10 February, available at: http://www.education.ie/robots/view.jsp?pcategory ¼10861&language¼EN& ecategory¼11469&link¼link001&doc¼48108 (accessed 17 January 2011).

Hobfoll S.E, & Freedy J.R. (2001) Conservation of Resources: A general stress theory applied to burnout, Journal of Professional Burnout, pp. 115-129.

Hobfoll, S.E. (2001), “The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: advancing conservation of resources theory”, Applied Psychology An International Review, Vol. 50 No. 3, pp. 337-421.

Innstrand, S.T., Espnes, G.A. & Mykletun, R. (2008) Job Stress, Burnout and Job Satisfaction: An Intervention Study for Staff Working with People with Intellectual Disabilities, Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, Vol.17, pp.119-126.

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Khattak, K. J., Khan, A. M., Haq, A., Arif, M. & Minhas, A. A. (2011) Occupational stress and burnout in Pakistan’s banking sector, African Journal of Business Management, Vol. 5(3), pp. 810-817.

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Maslach, C. & Jackson, S. (1982), “Burnout in health professions: a social psychological analysis”, in Sanders, G. and Suls, J. (Eds), Social Psychology of Health and Illness, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 227-51.

Maslach, C. & Jackson, S. (1984), “Patterns of burnout among a national sample of public contact workers”, Journal of Health and Human Resources Administration, Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 189-212.

Maslach, C. & Jackson, S. (1986), Maslach Burnout Inventory Manual, Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA.

Maslach, C. & Leiter, M.P. (1997), How organizations cause personal stress and what to do about it, The Truth About Burnout, 1st edition, USA.

Maslach, C. (1982), Burnout: The Cost of Caring, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W.B. & Leiter, M.P. (2001), “Job burnout”, Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 52 No. 1, pp. 397-422.

McNall, L.A., Nicklin, J.M. & Masuda, A.D. (2010),”A meta-analytic review of the consequences associated with work-family enrichment”, Journal of Business Psychology, Vol. 25 No. 3, pp. 381-396.

Murphy, L.R. (1995). Managing job stress. An employee assistance human resource management partnership. Personnel Review, Vol. 24(1), p. 41-50.

Naqv.I S.M.H., Khan M.A., Kant A.Q. & Khan S. N. (2013) Job stress and employee productivity; Case of Azad Kashmir Public health sector, Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, Vol. 5(3), pp.525-526.

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Polikandrioti, M. (2009). Burnout syndrome, Health Sciences Journal, Vol. 3(4), p.195.

Richardsen, A.M., & Martinussen, M. (2005), Factorial validity and consistency of the MBI-GS across occupational groups in Norway. International Journal of Stress Management, Vol. 12, pp.289-297.

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Schaufeli WB, Enzmann D. (1998) The burnout companion to study and practice, Vol.1, pp.220.

Schaufeli, W., Leiter, M. & Maslach, C. (2009), “Burnout: 35 years of research and practice”, Career Development International, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 204-20.

Shikieri, A.B. & Musah H.A. (2012). Factors associated with occupational stress and their effects on organisatonal performance in a Sudanese university, Creative Education, Vol. 3(1), p.137.

Timms, C., Graham, D. & Contrell, D. (2007). I just want to teach. Queensland independent school teachers and their workload, Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. 45(6), pp.570-571.

Treven, (2005). Strategies and programs for measuring stress in work settings. Management, Vol. 10(2), pp.45-5.

Wayne, J.H., Grzywacz, J.G., Carlson, D.S. & Kacmar, K.M. (2007), “Work-family facilitation: a theoretical explanation and model of primary antecedents and consequences”, Human Resource Management Review, Vol. 17 No. 1, pp. 63-76.

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Source by Rahat Ahmed Chowdhury

10 Sample Interview Questions For Teens

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Everyone gets a little tongue tied answering job interview questions…

Most adults dread going on job interviews. So can you imagine how nerve-wracking it is for your teen-ager at his very first job interview?

One of the best things you can do to prepare your teen (or even yourself!) for an interview is to hold a “mock interview” at home.

That’s why I’ve put together the 10 most common interview questions and answers so you can help your teen appear cool as a cucumber!

1) Question: Why do you feel you are the best candidate for this job?

Answer: Because I’m responsible, reliable, and a hard worker.

2) Question: Do you have any experience in this type of work?

Answer: If you have related experience, tell them about it.

But if you don’t have experience, then answer: Not exactly, but I am a fast learner and I’m excited to learn as much as I can about (blank).

3) Question: Tell me about a strength of yours.

Answer: I’m a good listener and I like to be around people.

4) Tell me about a weakness of yours.

Answer: I’ve been called a perfectionist, but I like to do things right.

5) Question: Are you available on week-ends?

Answer: Yes I am. And if ever I’m not, I’ll be sure to let you know well in advance.

6) Tell me about how you would handle a difficult customer.

Answer: I would politely listen to their complaint without interrupting them, and then try to help them solve the problem.

7) How would you handle working with someone you don’t particularly like?

Answer: I get along easily with people – I don’t think that would be a problem.

8) What position do you think would fit you best?

Answer: I would like to learn as many different positions and jobs as I can. I’m really flexible.

9) Do you have your own transportation?

Answer: Yes. (if you do) or I don’t have my own car, but my parents have agreed to drive me to work.

10) Why should I hire you?

Answer: Because I have a positive attitude and I’ll work hard every day.

The most important thing you can do when answering job interview questions is to smile and be yourself. Most interviewers are very nice people!

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Source by Sonja Mishek

Change Management Strategies – How Managers Can Add More Value

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At 10.50am on the 29th of November 2005 Matthew, my youngest son was born. He was seven weeks premature and weighed only four lbs. Denise had to go into the operating theatre so I was alone at the side of Matthew’s incubator feeling scared and helpless. He was crying, so in an effort to try to do something I put my hands on either side of his little plastic cot and prayed he would be ok.

I was startled by a whisper in my ear, it was the nursery matron, she said “what are you doing?” I replied “I’m trying to help my baby.” She laughed softly saying “son, you won’t help him from behind the glass.”

So she lifted Matthew gently and placed him inside my shirt. He cuddled in and went back to sleep. Though I sometimes reflect on my failings as a father and in business, at that moment with Matthew sleeping on my shoulder I felt like I could have changed the world.

I believe that if we reflect on times on our life when we feel our best, it is when we are helping others. And I also believe that the more you help others get what they want the more you get what you want. For managers this means getting involved at the coalface. Read on to find out how.

First make sure that people have a strong sense of purpose. They need to know why and what they are trying to do, they get feedback in the form of measures, and are also allowed to contribute to the improvement of the system. But more than anything else, you must get involved.

Let’s consider purpose. Purpose drives behaviour and therefore tells people how to act in a given situation. Take, for example, a contact centre – management tell their staff that they want customers to experience great service, but in the same breath measure them on the number of calls they take every day. Given the choice of behaving in accordance with what they’re told to do and what they’re measured on staff will focus on call volume rather than doing the right thing for the customer. Hence the purpose becomes do things as fast as possible, even if it’s the wrong thing to do.

When there’s no clear purpose staff get confused about what they’re doing and why they’re doing it. Morale goes down because there is a lack of meaning in the job; getting through as many calls as you can every day is not really making a contribution to the customer. And when you deviate from what matters to customers your business fails.

Next make sure you have measures related to your purpose. Working on a clear operational concrete purpose is no good if you then use unrelated measures. Remember people will do what you count, not always what counts.

Finally study work. Look for systems and processes that make it difficult for staff to serve the customer.

As I was reminded through the nurse in Matthew’s ward that you can’t help people from behind the glass. This applies as much to managers as it does to fathers and nurses. What about you? How much time did you spend solving problems with your team last week?

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Source by Stuart P Corrigan

Stress – Simple Tips To Reduce Stress Quickly & Easily

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We all know the word stress and most of us know when we are being stressed, but do you know the symptoms that show you are over stressed?

If you do, and can spot them early and there are some exercises and techniques explained below that can let you beat them before you need medication.

The Stress Symptoms

Almost always when you are being stressed, you will notice a tightening of your muscles, usually in the hands and arms, sometimes the legs and feet.

Your blood pressure will rise, and your skin temperature will as well. These are normal responses from your natural “fight or flight” reflex.

If you are a bit observant and watch yourself carefully, you can identify these stress responses by your body.

Short-Term Stress is Good. Long-Term Stress is Deadly

If the above stress responses occur because you are in some sort of danger, and you have to protect yourself (by fighting or fleeing), then the stress is good. However they must be controlled.

A good example is being in a long line at the airport, with a nasty airline employee greeting you after your turn finally comes. The employee can stress you to very high limits, and you need all your self-control.

You will see your stress symptoms appearing.

Your quick reaction is needed. You must assert yourself, and get the employee to do their job, and quickly, and politely.

Your fighting will be by mental means, and verbal delivery. This short-term stress was a good thing.

Your body’s reactions were healthy for you, and all your natural anti-oxidants raced throughout your body to clear up any free radicals that were present.

However, if you suffer the above symptoms from an aggressive boss or co-worker at work on a daily basis, you are heading for real trouble.

Daily stress will:

o Weaken your immune system.

o Cause various organs to malfunction or fail.

o Produce undesired chemicals (hormones and enzymes) in your system.

Eventually you will become ill if you subject yourself to a daily stress that has the ability to produce stressor-reactions.

De-Stress! And Beat Stress

If you understand that your stress is becoming chronic, you must begin to de-stress at the sign of the first symptoms.

It’s easy; anyone can do it, anywhere. Follow these steps exactly, you will de-stress at once.

o Initial deep breathing. Stop a moment, whatever you are doing, and take three deep and profound breaths. Close your eyes and visualize the air racing into your lungs with healing energy, and racing out of your lungs with stress-filled spent energy.

o Withdraw! Wherever you are, there will be a restroom. Go there at once. Wash your face and especially your wrists with cold water. Feel the cold water bringing you balance (from the overheating the stress causes). Your skin temperature will actually drop! While you are alone, deep breathe as in the next step

o Take three more deep breathes, but this time, double the inhalation response and the exhalation response. This is done by taking a double breathe, one short, followed by a longer breath. The exhalation is the same, double. At the end of three deep double breathes, you will be back to normal.

o The last step is to wait. Feeling calmer, sit down (a toilet is an ideal place) and wait about 3 minutes. Feel yourself getting back to normal.

You are ready to face the world again, de-stressed. Remember, do these exercises each time you feel a prolonged stress, as the short stress is good for you, but long term stress is a killer. Look after yourself!

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Source by Sacha Tarkovsky

Leadership and Employee Engagement Podcast

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Leadership and Employee Engagement Podcast

By Jonathan Randle

Download from Itunes

Training Employees Online

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Businesses need to train and develop their employees regularly as it will help improve employee work performance, provide them with skills necessary to deal with changing technologies, and equip them adequately to perform their duties and helping the company achieve its goals. This has become a problem though for many small businesses as they have to work on a small budget, cannot afford to have the employees away from work for several days to gather as work could come to a stand still. This is when online training programs come in handy.

Advantages of Online Training for Employees:

Providing online training for employees will greatly benefit those companies that cannot afford to have employees away from work for long durations. Online training can be given to just one or to a group of employees with relative ease and with minimum wastage of time and energy. The employees can learn on the job spending a few hours each day whenever it is convenient for them, from their workstations, which greatly helps small businesses by being economical as well as providing tailor made materials for the company. The company looks out for online training material providers to provide a content rich course material to be distributed internally, courses designed to teach individuals qualities they need training in such as leadership, or they seek help to develop and offer courses themselves. Training helps motivate the employees, making them adept at handling any situation, as well as improves work quality.

Online training for employees is also preferred by large corporations with offices and employees at different continents, since training for a large group of employees at different locations can be done easily with their workstations. These methods are effective as information is just a click away and courses are offered through emails, interactive websites as well as CDs etc.

Online training for employees ensures that companies get to train their employees fast and make them learn skills necessary for optimum performance at their convenience. When companies sponsor the training, employee moral gets a boost as well as increases the motivation to complete the training successfully. Performance management systems guide the company as well as the employee in choosing the right training necessary for each individual employee. Online training has made it possible for employees to further their qualifications by enrolling in online universities as well as continue their present jobs; mostly the company sponsors their training.

The ease of locating training institutes, offering specific content rich course materials and easy schedules, has made providing online training for employees easy and beneficial for businesses as well as for the employees.

There are firms that specialize in offering their services and products to help new owners run a business successfully and smoothly.

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Source by Alexander Gordon

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